Coca plantations in the 20th century accounted for approximately 7 million hectares of deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon. Trends going into the 21st century reveal that this destruction is still rampant; from 2001-2013 over 290,000 hectares of forest were lost due to processes of cocaine manufacturing. A specific concern of this destruction is that much of the habitat destroyed for drug crops lies inside biodiversity hot spots like the northern-Andean ecosystem, which is singly “the most species-rich region on Earth.”These remote areas are chosen since they happen to be ideal spots for illegal plantations, due to their locations far from urban areas and potential detection. In the aftermath of deforestation, there follows increased levels of erosion and the loss of nutrient-rich top soils, as well as an elevated exposure of species to predation risks and climatic stressors. The deforestation that occurs for coca and marijuana plantations is frequently correlated with “slash and burn” agriculture, making the already destructive practices exponentially more problematic. When trees are felled during a forest clear-cut, not only are they unable to continue sequestering carbon, but the carbon that they have accumulated for decades is then also released into the atmosphere when the trees are incinerated. The production of illicit drugs therefore has an effect beyond the ecosystem level, as plantation efforts further complicate the impacts of greenhouse gasses and climate change. While an in-depth and detailed description is not given here, it is obvious that the loss of old growth forests is a serious risk to the biodiversity and climatic conditions of the world. Efforts by federal agencies, like the Drug Enforcement Administration,cannabis hydroponic set up up to this point, have been focused mainly on stopping the importation, smuggling, sale, and consumption of illicit drugs. This reactive approach of enforcement occurs post drug production, after significant environmental damage has been incurred.
It is necessary for a strategic switch to a more preventive, environmentally-focused approach, that is directed at the public, consumer bases, and law-makers, and focuses on stopping production in its initial stages. By engaging these focal groups, enforcement efforts can rally support from environmental agencies, non-government organizations, and nature advocates. Seeing the strong influence of the widespread “green” and environmental movements, it seems reasonable that an appeal to the ethos of nature may be a valid alternative to the outdated approach of drugs as a “detriment to society”. With the economic support and coordination of intellectual and technological resources, enforcement and environmental agencies, as well as nature advocates, can work in tandem to streamline their preventive efforts aimed at stopping environmentally destructive production processes.The primary solution required for successfully resolving the global and multifaceted issue of drug production, is to improve upon international and intrastate agency cooperation. The concept presented here is not intricate. Simply stated, while limited cooperation does exist between countries, agencies, and via international organizations, like the United Nations, the amount of integration required to accurately address this issue is currently insufficient. Permanent integration is required between these organizations. The current cooperative efforts focused on specific temporal operations are not enough to stem this profound issue that has continually persisted for decades. Intrastate agencies such as the United States Forest Service, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, Central Intelligence Agency, and Drug Enforcement Administration need to fully incorporate their efforts in regards to domestic and international drug control. Internationally, these domestic agencies, led by the initiative of the Executive Branch and the United States Senate, need to establish close links with their counterparts in major cocaine trafficking and growth countries such as Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. An example of the success that can stem from intimate cooperation between nations is highlighted by the combined efforts of the United States and Colombia in “Plan Colombia”.
A highlight of the cooperation occurred from 2009-2010, when the operation, which closely intertwined multiple agencies and resources of both nations, was able to remove 16,000 hectares of coca plantations, the equivalent of 14% of total Colombian cultivation.While federal outreach programs, such as the Office of National Drug Control Policy’s “Above the Influence” campaign, have addressed marijuana and drug usage in the past through commercial advertisements, the approach used has long been outdated and in need of revision. While the Office of National Drug Control Policy is no longer in oversight of “Above the Influence”, future attempts by the U.S. government or non-government organizations will require an adjustment of focus.Additionally, a 2013 study of marijuana consumption revealed there to be approximately20 million frequent users of cannabis in the U.S.Anti-drug advertisements need to redress their approach by combining traditional health issues with the impacts of environmental destruction that results from cannabis and cocaine production. These campaigns also must make an overt appeal to drug consumers, indicating how they are personally contributing to ecosystem degradation by electing to use these recreational drugs, thus propelling the drug-trade. A new advertising approach focused on enlightening voting constituents and consumers about the environmental damages of marijuana and cocaine production may help reveal issues to the public that they were formerly unaware of, but have vested interests in. Public issue campaigns revealing the determinants that cannabis and cocaine bring to species and ecosystems may prove to be a more substantial deterrent to consumers than the traditional appeals advocating that one should avoid drugs because they are “bad, illegal, and dangerous for your health.” Even if these campaigns are not guaranteed to be effective at declining the consumer base, by exposing to the public and nature advocates the severe impacts brought about by cannabis and cocaine production, an avenue is opened for voters to channel their concerns and appeal to their legislators. State and Federal Congressional members not only have an incentive to follow their constituents’ will, but will also have the power to enact meaningful legal change. Petitions and appeals to legislative bodies such as the Energy and Natural Resource Committee, Caucus on International Narcotics Control, Foreign Affairs Committee, Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Environmental and Public Works Committee, Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry Committee will help address issues of cooperation, enforcement, prevention, and regulation.
By appealing to the environmental issues of drug production, enforcement agencies can expand their targeted audience and accrue a wider base of support, thus improving their ability to resolve the multifaceted concerns of cannabis and cocaine production. The main purpose of this paper is to enlighten readers about the non-transparent issues of environmental damage resulting from the drug trade of cocaine and cannabis, and to encourage the integration and cooperation of concerned groups. Provided below are some feasible strategies that could possibly be invoked in future efforts. One of the most practical solutions available would involve the implementation of stricter regulations and enforcement methods for existing and proposed legalized marijuana plantations and facilities. Specifically, there needs to be a detailed review and inspection of greenhouse gas emissions, as well as, the use and disposal of fertilizers and pesticides by certified growers. As the United States continues to expand the number of states that accept the usage of medicinal and recreational marijuana, there needs to be an adaptation of “environmentally friendly” methods of growing, especially in regards to pesticide usage. Whether through solar energy or direct sunlight and natural fertilizers, if legislators are willing to accept the legalized consumption of marijuana in their states they need to also enforce its environmental impacts as well. In regards to the illegal cultivation of cocaine and cannabis, it is imperative that plantation detection and removal methods continue to improve via the implementation of the most advanced technology available. Through the aforementioned incorporation of environmental and enforcement objectives, the overall amount of funding allocated towards preventative enforcement measures will increase. This increase in funds, whether from legislatures expanding budgets, or from private donors and interest groups, will expand the array of options available for developing more economically efficient, and environmentally sound, detection and removal methods. The development of more numerous and effective aerial detection devices, whether in the form of manned or unmanned aircraft, provides a rational solution geared towards monitoring remote regions and identifying where clear-cutting and plantation is occurring, allowing for termination during the initial stages of production. A notable success of aerial detection, and spraying, of coca crops occurred in the combined U.S. and Colombian operation “Plan Colombia”, hydroponic system for cannabis where sustained aerial operations were “credited” with the operation’s successful removal of 16,000 hectares of Colombian coca plantations.However, it is also imperative that there continues to be an evolution of the chemical compounds and pesticides designed to thoroughly exterminate illicit drug crops. Compounds used in the eradication of plantations will continue to have an antithetical effect if they do not simultaneously leave surrounding wildlife, humans, and vegetation unharmed. Finally, by integrating interest groups and concerned citizens into removal processes, governmental organizations can acquire the man-power required to properly dispose of the materials and waste accumulated on cleared plantations; a task typically undermanned and poorly executed. Regarding the societies of nations affected by illicit drug trading, there exists a necessity for the rebuilding of society and reintegration of civilians. Even if crop production is significantly curtailed, without a successful rebuilding process, societies will face issues of adjustment towards legal agricultural, and possibly risk a reversion to the now normalized practices of illicit drug cultivation.
A prime example of what this process entails is provided by Colombia’s “National Consolidation Plan,” which is working to involve and reintegrate Colombian citizens who have been forced into the drug trade, whether out of necessity or violence. With the assistance of the United States, the Colombian government has started eradicating drug crops and subsequently loosening the grips of rebel groups and narcotic organizations, like the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia People’s Army. As these organizations lose their drug supplies, which compose the majority of their incomes, they also lose their ability to exact a stranglehold over local populations. However, since these citizens have been adjusted to violence and forced into illegal methods of raising revenues, such as cultivating coca crops, they require assistance to be reintegrated into society and in reverting back to traditional forms of agriculture.Without demilitarization and reintegration, not only will citizens be unable to confirm to, and thrive in, a legalized society, but many of the former large cartel operations will likely end up splintering into smaller local operation, continuing environmental and societal degradation. To help prevent this type of situation from occurring, the United States Agency for International Development and the Colombian government have worked to implement “livelihood projects” that go beyond illicit crop eradication and include “enterprise development, natural resource protection, institutional strengthening, and promoting access to markets.”Both nations have also worked to introduce drug prevention programs throughout the nation and to reform and improve the legal and judicial systems.Despite the health risks and societal costs of cigarette smoking, the prevalence of smoking in the USA remains high at ∼19 % . Roughly 44 % of cigarettes are used by smokers with substance abuse/dependence and/or mental illness , and people with almost all substance abuse and mental illness diagnoses have elevated rates of cigarette smoking . Cigarette smokers have elevated rates of both caffeine and marijuana use. Roughly half of smokers drink coffee and report drinking almost twice as much coffee per day as nonsmokers . Similarly, among smokers, 57.9 % have ever used marijuana, and smokers are about 8 times more likely than non-smokers to have a marijuana use disorder , with cigarette smoking and marijuana use being associated even after controlling for potential confounding variables, such as depression, alcohol use, and stressful life events . Given the high comorbidity of smoking and both caffeine and marijuana use, it is important to better understand biological factors that may be associated with these co-occurrences. One of the most well-established effects of chronic cigarette smoking on the human brain is widespread upregulation of α4β2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors . Recent studies using single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography have consistently demonstrated significant upregulation of these receptors in smokers compared to nonsmokers.