Systemic administration of AM404 normalizes the behavior of juvenile SHR without affecting that of control rats . These findings suggest that inhibitors of endocannabinoid inactivation may be used to alleviate certain symptoms of dopamine dysfunction. Clinical data showing that 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol ameliorates tics in Tourette’s syndrome patients lend further support to this possibility . Future Challenges. In conclusion, three major challenges lie before the pharmacologist interested in the mechanisms of endocannabinoid inactivation from the perspective of drug discovery. The first is the need for a deeper molecular understanding of these mechanisms. Considerable insight has been gained in the last few years on the structure and catalytic properties of AAH, but many questions remain unanswered, including the identity of the putative endocannabinoid transporter and the existence of additional hydrolytic enzymes for anandamide and 2-AG. The second challenge lies in the development of potent and selective inhibitors of endocannabinoid inactivation. Future AAH inhibitors should combine the potency of those currently available with greater pharmacological selectivity and biological availability. A second generation of endocannabinoid transport blockers that overcome the limitations of AM404 and its congeners is also needed. The third challenge is the validation of endocannabinoid mechanisms as targets for therapeutic drugs. This task is intertwined, of course,grow rack systems with that of understanding the endocannabinoids’ roles in normal physiology, one on which much research is currently focused.
The internet has profoundly altered how individuals obtain information regarding their health, and men’s health is no exception. Although men are less likely than women to pursue preventative health care and more likely to develop chronic cardiovascular and metabolic disease, the rise of online social media platforms may play a role in challenging this disproportion. Men contending with infertility increasingly turn to social media platforms for information, guidance, and discussion with peers. A male factor contributes to nearly 60% of all cases of infertility, yet cultural and societal constructs of masculinity create psychosocial barriers to consultation with a physician. Social media platforms enfranchise men to take an active role in understanding causes and treatments for infertility by providing anonymity absent from face-to-face encounters. Although health information online is becoming more readily accessible, it escapes the scrutiny of scientific publication guidelines, allowing for the propagation of non-evidenced-based material.Literature assessing the quality of male infertility content available online remains scarce, although a recent review has shown that urological conditions as a whole suffer from a spread of misinformation on social media. Social media analytics tools have emerged that provide detailed, quantitative metrics, but these tools have not yet been applied to content in the male infertility space. Given the proliferation of sensationalism on social media, we hypothesized that content about male infertility shared on social media platforms may be largely inaccurate or misleading. Using a combination of an analytics tool and a quality rating system, we performed a quantitative and qualitative analysis of male infertility content shared on social media. These data may inform how men’s health specialists should approach patient education about male infertility, as well as ways in which they engage with social media in the future.We used the social media analytics tool BuzzSumo to identify the most shared male infertility content from September 2018 through August 2019. BuzzSumo gathers data across the social media platforms Facebook, Pinterest, Reddit, and Twitter to generate a list of article links with the highest online engagement.
Engagement is defined as the total number of interactions that users have with a particular article link, including actions, such as “liking,” “commenting,” and “sharing” on social media. Two urologists with advanced fellowship training in male reproductive medicine initially screened a total of 20 search terms related to male infertility using BuzzSumo. Ten terms were then selected based on having the highest total engagements for BuzzSumo interrogation: fertility in men, low sperm treatment, male fertility, male fertility testosterone, male infertility, semen analysis, sperm count, sperm motility, sperm quality, and sperm testosterone. Terms were further excluded if no associated article links generated sufficient engagement .Fig. 1 summarizes the workflow for selecting article links from final search term results. The most popular article links for each search term were identified, followed by analysis of social media engagement. Links were excluded if they were not written in the English language, were not related to male infertility, were audio podcasts, were broken/expired, or had fewer than 100 total engagements, a metric that has been used in prior investigations to exclude low impact content . Two medical student reviewers with curricular training in critical evaluation of the literature independently graded content as accurate, misleading, or inaccurate by assessing references cited, as well as comparing the content to existing peer-reviewed literature .Content was classified as misleading if it contained a combination of accurate and inaccurate information, or if it extrapolated animal data to make inappropriate conclusions about human fertility. The senior authors, two urologists with advanced fellowship training in male reproductive medicine,rolling flood tables were blinded to the two reviewer decisions and adjudicated all discordances. Cohen’s κ was used to calculate inter-rater reliability between the two independent reviewers.
Binary logistic regression was used to compare user engagement with accurate versus inaccurate/misleading article links; a separate regression was run for total engagement, to limit collinearity among variables. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. Statistical analysis was performed using IBM SPSS ver. 25 .After applying exclusion criteria, eight search terms and 52 article links remained. Of the original ten search terms, the two exclusions due to insufficient engagement were “male fertility testosterone” and “low sperm treatment.” The 52 article links were stratified into four categories: scientific peer-reviewed journal, medical center or hospital affiliated website, news organization website, and alternative media . Overall, the majority of links came from websites in the alternative media category , followed by news organizations . Scientific peer-reviewed journal websites and medical center websites comprised the fewest article links, at 8% and 2%, respectively. High-engagement articles hosted on alternative media websites were more accurate compared to misleading/inaccurate . Articles from each remaining category tended to have similar user engagement between accurate and misleading/inaccurate content . Table 2 outlines engagement data stratified by search term and social media platform. “Sperm count” emerged as the most popular search term, capturing 50% of the total engagement across all platforms. Facebook was the most popular platform for sharing male infertility content , followed by Reddit , Twitter , and Pinterest . All search terms experienced highest engagement on Facebook, with the exception of “fertility in men,” which was most popular on Reddit. Overall, 56% of articles were graded as accurate and 44% as misleading or inaccurate . No significant difference was found in engagements between accurate versus inaccurate/misleading links . Fifteen peer-reviewed research studies comprised the primary citations used by 34 of the 52 total articles links. The remaining 18 links did not cite original peer-reviewed scientific studies, or purported study data were not accessible. Of the 34 links with scientific evidence, 17 referenced the same two original research studies and captured twice as many engagements as the remaining 13 studies combined. Studies relying upon animal or insect models Though male infertility content proliferates on the internet, little is known about the sources and quality of information encountered by users who may make health care decisions based on what they read online. Prior work has shown that misinformation about urological conditions thrives on social media, but an in-depth analysis of male infertility content has been lacking. To this end, we quantified internet user engagement with male infertility content across a variety of social media platforms, then evaluated the accuracy of information shared on these platforms. We found that social media users encounter misleading or inaccurate information about male infertility at similar rates to accurate content. Nearly a quarter of user engagement focused on article links reporting on experimental results in non-human models, and 90% of these articles were determined to be misleading – the original studies were routinely misinterpreted as having immediate implications for human fertility, then amplified on social media.
For example, in a study by Sales et al, male insects exposed to increasing heatwave conditions had significantly lower sperm function and offspring production, and this effect showed transgenerational impact. The study draws no conclusions about human fertility, yet an article in USA Today reported, “…[T]he scientists used beetles to test their theory. But researchers say the insects can be used as a proxy for people,” and concluded that human fertility is directly impacted by climate change. Despite the inappropriate extrapolation, the USA Today link alone received a total of 21,812 social media engagements. We found that over 90% of male infertility content online comes from non-peer-reviewed sources, such as news organizations and alternative media . These data suggest that the scientific and medical establishment have limited traction with an increasingly sensationalized consumer culture. Scientific journal and medical center websites typically target their male infertility content toward scientifically literate health care professionals, rather than the general public. A potential way to mitigate the misinterpretation of scientific research may be for academic institutions to take a greater role in creating press releases or making researchers available for news media comment. The proliferation of misleading conjectures about scientifically sound research becomes subjected to the “illusory truth effect,” the tendency to believe false information to be accurate due to repeated exposure . Sensationalism on social media perpetuates unrealistic expectations of fertility treatments and can have significant economic implications for infertile couples, whose out-of-pocket expenditures related to male factor infertility may reach $15,000 in their quest to conceive a pregnancy. Indeed, a thriving market for male fertility vitamins and nutritional supplements has emerged online despite a paucity of evidence for a positive effect on semen analysis parameters. Although 15 research studies were cited in article links over the one-year study period, just two of these studies drew 50% of citations. The most popular study focused on the effect of marijuana smoking on sperm parameters and reproductive hormones, and the authors of this study cautioned that their data may not be generalizable to men from the general population. The other study that drew the second highest engagements examined the effect of chemical exposures on sperm function using a limited sample size of only nine humans and a comparison group of eleven canines, yet was featured in an article link that inappropriately generalized the data to imply wide translatability of the results. Our findings suggest that a few studies are tokenized and amplified to guide discussion about male infertility on social media, despite having crucial limitations that are overlooked. We also found that the most popular social media platform to share male infertility content was Facebook with 3× more engagements than Reddit and 56× more engagements than Twitter . Facebook’s higher level of engagement may be attributed to its in depth engagement dimensions and primary purpose of connecting with friends and family. For example, Facebook has a larger audience of various age ranges and users have the ability to share videos and engage with posts on a longer-term basis. This is in stark contrast to Twitter, whose primary purpose is to share ideas in 140 characters or less in a fast-paced nature making it difficult for posts to gain traction for very long as posts become quickly buried by new Tweets. Reddit is another platform which allows for longer term engagement with conversations within Reddit subforums, which may account for it being the platform with the second highest engagements. Our findings suggest that platforms with the ability to keep posts visible to users for longer periods of time plays a role in overall engagements. Overall, our study findings highlight the need to facilitate online health interventions designed to offer users men’s health information that is both accurate, engaging, and tailored to the general public. Discussions about male infertility are no longer occurring in the confines of medical offices and urologists should consider adding social media to their armamentarium to stave off misinformation and engage proactively with patients. The present study is not without limitations. This study focuses only on the accuracy and engagement of male infertility content; little is known on how that engagement directly influences an individual’s behaviors beyond the act of “sharing,” “liking” or “commenting” on social media.