Cannabis Grow

Finally, it has beneficial effects in the treatment of anxiety, depression and psychosis by alleviating some symptoms of these diseases. In terms of toxicity, CBD has few adverse effects, the most frequent side effects reported being sedation and dizziness.In 2012, a pioneering randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial of cannabidiol versus amisul pride, a potent antipsychotic medication, demonstrated that CBD has comparable antipsychotic properties in alleviating both positive and negative schizophrenia symptoms and yields to similar significant clinical improvement than amisulpride in the treatment of acute schizophrenia .Moreover, CBD displayed a substantially superior side-effect profile than that of amisulpride. Indeed, compared to amisulpride, treatment with CBD was associated with significantly fewer extrapyramidal symptoms , less weight gain and lower prolactin increase, a predictor of galactorrhea and sexual dysfunction .

Furthermore, CBD was well tolerated and did not significantly affect cardiac or hepatic functions. Interestingly, the results of Leweke et al. were correlated with increased levels of anandamide, suggesting that inhibition of anandamide deactivation may contribute to the antipsychotic effects of CBD which potentially represents a completely new mechanism of action in the treatment of schizophrenia.In summary, studies conducted with cannabidiol show that cannabis types with a high concentration of cannabidiol are significantly less strongly associated with psychotic symptoms. By regulating dopaminergic activities, CBD has the features of a potential efficient antipsychotic medication, while being deprived of the deleterious side effects of the conventional antipsychotic pharmacotherapies.In fact, CBD exerts clinically relevant antipsychotic effects and has a better safety and tolerability profile compared with current antipsychotic medications . A dose-response relationship exists between the amounts of cannabis used and the likelihood of developing psychosis or psychotic features: the risk increases with the quantity, frequency and duration of cannabis consumption.Similarly, early age of cannabis use is correlated with an increased probability of manifesting such symptoms.

This observation could be explained by the fact that the brain of young people aged between 14 and 25 years has not reached its complete maturation and therefore is more vulnerable to the psychotomimetic effects of THC and the adverse central manifestations of cannabis . These observations illustrate the critical role played by the endo cannabinoid system in the brain maturation, particularly during adolescence.Regarding genetic susceptibility, it has been demonstrated that psychosis inducing effects of cannabis use are related to genetic variability in the catechol-0-methyltransferase gene. This vulnerability increases when individuals are exposed to childhood abuse. Cannabis consumption increases the likelihood of developing psychotic experiences in Val carriers only when they are exposed to childhood abuse. Similarly, AKT1 and DRD2 genotypes are involved in the likelihood of developing psychosis.The characterization of potential genes presenting a risk of psychotic outcomes will facilitate the comprehension of the cannabis-psychosis link and will help identify the persons who present a genetic vulnerability to the psychotogenic effects of cannabis.

Child trauma plays also a deleterious role in the expression of psychosis or psychotic features by a progressive sensitization mechanism: exposure to traumatic experiences during childhood may induce neurobiological changes characterized by an over-reactivity of the hypothalamus and the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis, abnormalities in the neurotransmitter system and structural brain changes .Cigarette smoking has also been considered a risk factor for the development of psychosis or psychotic symptoms.A biological mechanism involving dopamine release and nicotinic cholinergic neurotransmission could be involved .Finally, urbanicity increases the strength of the cannabis-psychosis relationship.This phenomenon could be explained by the fact that living in urban areas may enhance cannabis use and render people more vulnerable to the psychotomimetic effects of THC by neurobiological mechanisms .None of each of the six risk factors described is neither necessary, nor sufficient to do so alone.On the other hand, cannabidiol plays a protective role in the cannabis-psychosis relationship.

Cannabis species with a high concentration of cannabidiol are significantly less strongly associated with psychotic symptoms, rendering CBD a promising efficient antipsychotic medication. Large randomized-controlled clinical trials will eventually confirm or infirm the qualitative and quantitative antipsychotic potential of cannabidiol .However, the causal and temporal association between the use of cannabis and the development of psychosis or psychotic features is not clear and remains controversial. Population statistics argue against the causal relationship.While cannabis use among adolescents has increased substantially in the past 40 years , the population trends in schizophrenia incidence have not .Macleod and colleagues have suggested that a non-causal explanation is possible for most of the associations between cannabis use and psychosis: “Cannabis use could be a marker, rather than a cause of a life trajectory more likely to involve adverse outcomes” .Moreover, a large number of studies cannot determine if psychotic features predispose individuals to use cannabis or if cannabis use increases psychotictraits.

Cytosolic GSgenes were induced following pathogen infection in tobacco and similar induction occurred in Arabidopsis following infectivity by E. amylovora . Glutamine levels have been also correlated with the activation of defense responses in plants .PAL catalyzes the non-oxidative conversion of phenylalanine to cinnamic acid and ammonia. Also, amidases catalyze the hydrolysis of carboxylic amide bonds to liberate carboxylic acids and ammonia. Presently it is unknown if these defense enzymes are involved in the CT and glufosinate interactions as studied here, but it would be a large and interesting undertaking to study.Weed defense mechanisms against pathogens are important to bioherbicidal efficacy and to interactions of bioherbicides and herbicides. PAL activity can increase dramatically in response to various stimuli . This increase denzyme activity leads to increased production of cinnamic acid, phenolic products and phytoalexins, some of which are toxic to bacteria and fungi.

Another product of PAL catalysis is ammonia. This increased enzyme activity leads to increased production of cinnamic acid, phenolic products and phytoalexins,some of which are toxic to bacteria and fungi. Another product of PALcatalysis is ammonia. Furthermore, PAL was suggested as a target site for herbicides and PAL activity was shown to be elevated or inhibited by variousherbicides.The fungal pathogen Alternaria cassiae,has bioherbicidal activity against sicklepod, and alters phenylpropanoidmetabolism in this weed . PAL activity levels were increased prior tovisual symptoms of pathogenesis when A. cassiae spores were applied to seedlings.PAL activity was elevated 3-fold above uninoculated plants and remained high for several days. Similar results were reported for Alternaria crassa, a fungalbioherbicide that controls jimson weed. Many examples have been reported and summarized with respect to the correlation of PALactivity with pathogen challenge and plant defense e.g. . Nitrilases are involved in a wide variety of biological processes, some related to plant defense and certain amidohydrolases are reported to contribute to the biosynthesis of auxin, the ubiquitous plant growth hormone .

Ammonia and creating an alkaline environment are important in the pathogenesis of some plant pathogens. For example, during colonization of a fungus related to CT, ammonia accumulates in the host plantmaking it more alkaline, thus promoting the activities of extracellular enzymes such as pectate lyase . Similarly, ammonia secretion, modulation of pH toalkaline conditions and ammonia accumulation have been shown to be critical factors related to the pathogenicity of C. coccodes on tomato . Plant pathogens and compounds that alter ammonia in a given host, may interact with pathogenesis. Although some typical effects of CTwere observable in the combined treatment of glufosinate and CT, the degree of toxicity of glufosinateon this bioherbicide may have prevented a synergistic interaction response when these two weed control agents were applied at these concentrations together on hemp sesbania. Possibly, by modifying the relative concentrations of glufosinate and CT, i.e. ,so that the herbicide concentration is lowered,while the CT concentration is raised,might result in synergy. Also,glufosinate could be applied and allowed to be absorbed by the weed for a more extended time, which would effectively reduce the herbicide concentration on the weed surface, and perhaps lower toxicity to CT, thus allowing a higher conidial germination rate, formation of appresoria and infection of this weed host.

Synergy is also a concentration dependent phenomenon, and thus altering the concentration ratio of the components may promote or suppress this outcome.Several Colletotrichum species, have been reported to have synergistic interactions with various herbicides . Synergy was also reported in combinations of glufosinate and two bacterial bioherbicides on some weeds . Cannabis is the most widely used drug in the world. According to the UnitedNations Office on Drugs and Crime, the number of cannabis consumers worldwidewas estimated in 2018 to be 192 million users, with the highest prevalencebeen among young people . Cannabis contains 565 known chemicals, of which 144 are grouped under thename cannabinoids. The major psychoactive ingredient of cannabis is delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly known as THC. Other cannabinoids present in Indian hemp include delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol , cannabidiol,cannabinol,cannabicyclol,cannabichromene and cannabigerol.Cannabinoids exert some of their actions by binding to specific receptors: theCB1 cannabinoid receptors, discovered by Devane et al. in 1988 , then cloned by Matsuda et al. in 1990 and the CB2 cannabinoid receptors identified byMunro et al. in 1993 .More than 250 controlled clinical trials have demonstrated their efficacy in a dozen pathologies.

Fresh weight analysis of seedling shoots treated with H2O and with Silwet L-77 were not significantly different from each other in either species and plant growth in the MV and MV-Sector BSH treatments were reduced by 20 and 15%, in hemp sesbania and sicklepod,respectively .Previous studies have examined the effects of MV spore preparations on growth and development of hemp sesbania and sicklepod seeds , and were also chosen for studies here. The effects of imbibing weed seeds in mycelial preparations of MV and MV-Sector BSH showed that MV was slightly more toxic to hemp sesbania than to sickle pod and was also slightly more potent than the MV-SectorBSH to the early growth of both species . Comparison of SDS-PAGE protein profiles on gels of MV and the sector cell extracts,demonstrated that many bands were similar with respect to presence and abundance and Figure 5. However, some differences were observed and generally more bands appeared to be in greater relative abundance in the MV-Sector BSH versus the MV parent gel and Figure 5.

Protein bands 1 and 3 were more abundant in MV versus MV-Sector BSH , whereas four bands were more abundant in the sector compared to its parent. Comparison of the protein profiles of the liquid culture supernatants of un-inoculated media with supernatants of the MV and MV-Sector BSH showed that both organisms were able to transform media proteins. Some differences in protein bands in the media culture supernatants of MV and MV-Sector BSH were observed,possibly indicating differential substrate preference of the organisms for proteins supplied by the media, and/or to variance in the production of extracellular proteins .Other strains of Myrothecium verrucaria are known to produce various hydrolyticenzymes including xylanases , pectinases , and proteases . Such enzymes play important roles in determining host range and virulence. The nature of these protein differences will need to be examined using native gels and 2-Dgel electrophoresis to determine any possible role as virulence factors.Early bioherbicidal studies on spore formulations of this parent strain of MV showed that the fungus produced trichothecenes that have mammalian toxicity.Another M. verrucaria isolate from leafy spurge exhibited a dissimilar weed host specificity range, but also produced trichothecenes .

Although MV possessed desirable bioherbicidal traits , production of undesirable mycotoxins remained problematic with regard to the development of a commercial product. Approaches to possibly reduce or eliminate these mycotoxins were considered, and cultural manipulation of carbon and nitrogen source/level , spore clean-up or washing and growth of MV in liquid culture without spore production were found successful. Of these techniques, the mycelial form of MV was found to be the most efficient for further studies .We have also previously shown that MV has produced other mutant sectors that had varying degrees of virulence when tested on kudzu . In those tests a white sector was found, but it exhibited no bioherbicidal efficacy on kudzu and was not tested on other weeds. In these present studies a white mutant was discovered and isolated, and shown to be virulent in several tests on hemp sesbania, sicklepod,kudzu and glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth. The fact that this virulent sector is stable, does not produce spores and exhibits bioherbicidal activity on major weeds indicatesit may be a useful stand-alone bioherbicide or as a tool for future comparative studies with MV.

Since this sector reproduces only through mycelial growth, it is assumed that that the production of trichothecenes is also mitigated. However, this will have to be monitored. Future studies can be envisioned, including more extensive host range tests with weeds , interactions with herbicides and tests for efficacy in the field. Since some proteins differed in MV-Sector BSH cells and in culture supernatants compared to those of MV, their identity and possible function in infection and virulence processes should be examined. Heat is a valuable entity that has served a variety of needs throughout human history, but only relatively recently has heat been used for weed control, where it may serve as an alternative to chemical herbicides. Much of the research involved with heat to control weeds has been via four general methods: controlled burning, flaming of weeds, hot water treatment and steam application. Heat injury can cause denaturation/aggregation of cellular proteins and protoplast expansion/rupture, resulting in plant tissue desiccation, potentially leading to death .Depending on the heat treatment exposure time, protein denaturation in plant tissues may be initiated at 45˚C . Temperatures of 55˚C – 95˚C can be lethal to plant leaf and stem tissues. Exposure to a flame for only 0.065 – 0.130s was sufficient to kill leaf tissue and higher temperatures were more effective.For example, cellular structural changes were more pronounced when the cellular temperature changed more rapidly compared to gradual and lower temperature changes .

According to the age of first illicit drug use, in our study, 7.5% of participants had consumed illicit drugs at 14–15 years old, 17.5% at 16–17 years old, and 9.7% at 18 years old or older, being in line with previous study in which the age of first illicit drug use were around 15 years old . In addition, we explored the difficulty of obtaining different illicit drugs. More than half of the students claimed that obtaining cannabis was easy or very easy. Instead, only around 30% of students claimed that obtaining cocaine, ecstasy, and amphetamines was easy or very easy. Our data on student perceived availability showed higher percentages than previous studies in Europe, where cannabis was also the most widely available drug , followed by ecstasy , cocaine , amphetamine , and methamphetamine . In addition, we did not find any different by gender; instead, according to a ESPAD study, boys were more likely to consider cannabis to be easily available than girls .

Most of the students were single, which is very common for those living at home with their parents at this age. Some studies showed that living with the family is a protective factor and working during university studies is detrimental to risky consumption compared to living with roommates or alone, which supports previous studies carried out with students . Interventions to counteract these risk behaviors should also include strengthening prosocial participation and parental control. Likewise, we consider it important in future studies to take into account other variables not considered in our analyses such as place of residence , family composition, family consumption, self-perception of family functional status,family support, and social class, among others. These variables could be related to drug use in the univer-sity student population since various studies highlight the family as a factor to take into account in the use of adolescents and young people . On the other hand, the illicit drug consumption between different nationalities were also explored; we found that France and Belgium reported high consumption regarding to the illicit drug ever in life, as well as cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, and amphetamines consumption ever in life.

Besides, the consumption of cannabis in the last 30 days was also statically significant, with France and Belgium being the ones with the highest consumption. This was in line with the bivariate analysis, in which nationality were significantly associated with the consumption of illicit drugs, cannabis, and ecstasy ever in life. According to the ESPAD study , France had more consumption in any drug , following by Spain and Belgium . Cannabis use was the same in Spain and France , being lower in Belgium . Despite this, Belgium presented higher consumption of ecstasy and amphetamines than Spain and France . Due to the differences previously found between countries, this could allow a broader vision to develop more specific drug use prevention programs . Finally, only 58% of nursing students claimed to have received knowledge of the problem of illicit drug use at university; this may be explained by the fact that there are a greater number of first-year students, and they have not yet acquired the knowledge.

Despite this, previous studies showed that nursing students have little knowledge of different drugs, as well as the potential uses of medical marijuana, and the risks associated with it . In this line, some authors claimed specific risk factors for drug use in nursing students, increased stress, and anxiety in the context of academic workload and lack of education on addiction or alcohol within schools of nursing curricula . Furthermore, a study by Strobbe et al. included risk factors for the use of illicit drugs in nursing students, the lack of education about the use of substances, inconsistent policies and procedures, and insufficient available interventions. This appears contrary to what is expected of these health professionals, since those who study health sciences should be the best candidates to acquire self-care skills and behave in a way that limits the adverse consequences for the health of inappropriate lifestyles . Substance misuse in nursing students may have more widespread negative sequelae, when compared to other students, since the impacts of substance misuse in nurses and nursing students have the potential to not only affect the individual but also the patients that they may care for . Despite this, the risk factors studied are not specific to nursing students. There is a profound paucity in the literature regarding to the prevalence of substance use among nursing students, as well as its risk factors . Therefore, to reduce the risk of nursing students and later newly graduated nurses in the use of drugs, larger and long-term studies should be carried out to understand the factors that influence the use of illicit drugs in nursing students, including the previously mentioned variables, so as to facilitate the implementation of evidence-based interventions within nursing schools .

Spain is divided into territories known as autonomous communities that differ in their socioeconomic characteristics and health indicators. Participants in this study were recruited from five municipalities belonging to two Spanish autonomous communities with similar socioeconomic characteristics: Burela in the northwest and Centelles, Torelló, Sant Joan de Vilatorrada and Sant Fruitós de Bages in the northeast . To select the most similar municipalities, the following indicators were used: personal income tax, number of inhabitants, percentage of population of non-Spanish origin and the distance to the region capital. Burela differs from the other four municipalities by being a multicultural town that harbours more than fifty different nationalities within its 9500 inhabitants.

The multicultural coexistence in Burela raises new challenges in the search for better social integration in Galiza, a context with a short history of immigrants’ reception. Studies have pointed out the various effects of socioeconomic context and ethnicity, as well as the influence of acculturation process on adolescents . As the population of adolescents is very diverse and young, it will be interesting to study the potentially existing inequalities in such a paradigmatic context. Burela is a very different population compared to most of the Galician municipalities with respect to its number of inhabitants. Therefore, we compared Burela to four municipalities, Centelles, Torelló, Sant Joan de Vilatorrada and Sant Fruitós de Bages, that were selected based on their socioeconomic and demographic characteristics and which are more similar to Burela than the rest of municipalities included in the study of Obradors and colleagues . In Spain, the access to health care is universal and free. Burela has one reference public hospital and one center of primary care services. Likewise, each of the four Catalan municipalities have one reference hospital and one center of primary care services.

Through our review of the literature, we identified a comprehensive body of research that analyzed addiction rates among TGD individuals as a single, non-stratified group. The vast majority of these studies reached a similar conclusion: the prevalence of addiction is significantly higher in transgender populations compared to cisgender populations. While we did locate a few studies where prevalence rates were not statistically different between the two populations, and some studies with contradictory results, these other studies were perhaps even more illuminating because they highlighted alternative disparities that are often overlooked in traditional prevalence studies. For instance, a study measuring the prevalence of heavy episodic drinking concluded that transgender participants actually reported lower rates than both cisgender men and cisgender women . However, when measuring the prevalence of alcohol-related problems among the same sample, transgender participants reported higher rates than either of the cisgender reference groups.

Another study reached the conclusion that alcohol consumption did not vary significantly between transgender and cisgender subgroups; however, when researchers measured an individual’s motivation for drinking, it was found that transgender participants were significantly more likely to identify negative reasons , while cisgender participants were much more likely to drink for positive social reasons . Although these types of studies were sparse, they provide additional context for the susceptibility of transgender populations to the downstream effects of addiction and highlight additional disparities that extend beyond traditional prevalence statistics. While there is a strong body of research comparing addiction rates between transgender and cisgender populations, the core purpose of our paper was to expand upon the empirically accepted conclusion that transgender individuals are, as a whole, at increased risk of addiction. Therefore, we focused on establishing the addiction discrepancies that exist between individual TGD subgroups. We identified a growing number of studies that compared addiction rates between TW and TM. Through our analysis of these studies, several differences in prevalence rates became apparent. Most notably, TM appeared to be at a higher risk than TW for most SUD categories . However, in our review of illicit drug use, it became evident that TW may be uniquely susceptible to methamphetamine use as well as injection drug use; the latter being particularly concerning given its association with parenterally transmitted infections such as HIV and Hepatitis C. Through our literature review, we identified a number of high-powered studies that analyzed a single TGD subgroup without the inclusion of a reference group.

The more likely explanation might be somewhat a combination of the first and third scenarios and suggests the challenge for the hemp food industry to separate hemp food from any association with either CBD oil or THC, whether this is through increased consumer education or the development of strains of Cannabis sativa which are guaranteed completely void of THC. Knowledge of the processes of varietal development is beyond the scope of this research and the authors acknowledge that the latter may not even be possible. That is, despite a belief in the physical and psychological benefits of hemp food, a positive attitude toward hemp food did not play a significant role in intention to consume it. The factor which provided the greatest contribution to intention to consume hemp food was consumers’ normative beliefs.

Subjective norms focused on consumers’ perceptions of what family, friends, peers and doctors would think of them consuming hemp food and whether they felt others like them would consume it as well. A high level of concern for the opinion of others and the mediating effect of the CBD construct on negative attitudes suggests that for this sample of the Australian population there remains a widespread stigma associated with hemp consumption. This stigma may be difficult to eradicate as it is the artifact of the previous illegal status of hemp food combined with decades of propaganda against cannabis use in any form . Consumers may find it difficult to disassociate hemp food from the more illicit uses of cannabis and seek the approval of others for confirmation of the acceptability of consuming hemp products. The normative beliefs and the mediated influence of negative beliefs through association with CBD oil are the only contributing factors to intention to consume hemp food in this study.

A final analysis of the findings from across the two phases of this research consisted of a meta-inference of qualitative with the quantitative findings under a pragmatic framework. Here it was revealed that the application of the theory of planned behavior and SEM in the quantitative phase two of this study was consistent with the outcomes of the initial interviews. Survey participants in the qualitative phase of the current study generally held positive attitudes toward hemp food and indicated they were likely to consume them at some time in the future, however, they also made contradictory statements indicating their reluctance to consume them at a time when they had to drive a car or attend their workplace, for example, yet denied they believed they would test positive. The issue of an association of hemp food with CBD oil and THC is complex and may not be easily resolved. This research evaluates the acceptance of hemp food in the Australian population and evaluates behavioral and normative beliefs within a population where consumption of cannabis products has been illegal until recent times.

The attitudes and beliefs surrounding cannabis may not extrapolate to a population where cannabis is a legal entity, or where hemp foods have been available for longer periods of time. However, the protocol of assessing negative attitudes as a separate construct under TPB may have utility for future research of alternate novel foods where highly salient negative associations are made to the food from external sources. The findings from the current study suggest some ambiguity may exist within the population between CBD oil and THC, the two more widely known properties of cannabis, and its association with hemp food, specifically hemp seed oil. Despite being highly conspicuous of hemp food, consumers may not be fully versed in their properties, effects, health benefits, etc., or aware of the differences between Cannabis sativa used in hemp food production, and Cannabis indica which is better known as marijuana. This may have contributed to the responses regarding the anxiolytic and relaxation effects of hemp food. Future research could focus on consumer understanding of hemp food’s specific properties and improve consumer education to address the identified lack of understanding. This may be of benefit to both the hemp food industry, and the medicinal cannabis quarter.

The findings also point to a potential for the development of a strain of cannabis fit for human consumption which is free from THC. While it is beyond the scope of this research and the competency of the researchers to suggest how or if this might be achieved, it would appear that innovation in food production is currently achieving goals never before imagined. Genetic modification, 3D printed foods, and foods produced using ultrasound or infusion heat treatment, for example, are highly advanced production methods for novel foods that may only be the tip of the innovation in the food production iceberg.Based on the reduction in seed development as compared to other crossing combinations, the triploids were determined to be infertile. Infertile hemp has been recommended as a strategy to mitigate yield reduction caused by pollination . As far as we are aware, this research represents the first report of triploid C. sativa female infertility.

In the same way, assertiveness and the abilities to appropriately perceive and understand emotions were explanatory of cannabis use when offered by friends in both adolescent age groups. Likewise, attentiveness to one’s own emotions acted as a risk factor only in the oldest age group. This pattern of results suggests that emotional components have value when it comes to improving thoughtpatterns . Moreover, they are an important preventive factor for risk behaviors such as cannabis use in the adolescent stage. In this study, active coping with strategies such as planning, humour, acceptance, cognitive reappraisal, etc., was related to lower frequency of cannabis use in the last year. This result is aligned with other investigations in which a negative association was found between active coping and behaviors related to the use of addictive substances in the adolescent population . A recent longitudinal study has revealed that greater active coping in middle adolescence prospectively predicts lower cannabis use in late adolescence . These data suggest that active coping makes it possible to control stressors through a broader repertoire of responses .

This aspect could explain responsible decision-making by helping to prevent the use of cannabis at an early age. On the other hand, the avoidant coping style predicted a greater probability of ever having tried cannabis. This result is in accordance with recent research , which found a positive association between this coping style and a greater probability of alcohol and cannabis consumption, as well as a greater quantity and frequency of use of these substances in adolescents. In this study, avoidance coping style was associated with cannabis use at some point in life for the oldest adolescent age group . The literature has highlighted that the use of cannabis begins at around the age of 14 and may be a way of regulating unpleasant emotional states due to a lack of personal resources , which could facilitate maladjustment and avoidance behaviors in the face of problems in the older group . It should be mentioned that, despite the fact that social coping correlated negatively and significantly with some variables of cannabis use, it did not have high explanatory power when considering the other personal factors. Despite this, the obtained results suggest that clinical and educational interventions could be beneficial in the development of positive coping strategies and also contribute to the reduced use of harmful substances such as cannabis at these ages.

Regarding the role of assertiveness in this study, it should be noted that it was associated with cannabis use at some point in life. This result was the same for the older group and for the use of cannabis when offered by friends. In agreement with the previous research , our results contribute to the proposition that assertive responses allow the effective management of situations related to the use of drugs, thus reinforcing an adolescent’s ability to withstand peer pressure. The influence of the peer group during this period has frequently been suggested as one of the factors most associated with cannabis use . Based on the previous research , non-normative peers are likely to promote adolescent cannabis use, which in turn can be seen as a maladaptive means of constructing and establishing personal and social identity, especially in the older group . For this reason, it could be said that having assertiveness skills has a favourable influence when strong resistance to peer pressure is required, as this is something that reduces young people’s vulnerability to the risk of consumption at these ages. In relation to trait EI, a greater perceived ability to repair negative emotional states by prolonging positive ones predicted a lower probability of ever having used cannabis in both age groups .

Likewise, a greater perceived ability to understand and repair one’s own negative emotional states was associated with a lower quantity and frequency of cannabis use in adolescents. The findings of this study are aligned with others in which a negative relationship was found between scores in emotional repair and clarity and the use of addictive substances in adolescents and university students . Our results support the idea that adolescents who better understand their emotions and have a better implementation of strategies for regulating negative emotional states are less likely to use cannabis as a way to mitigate aversive emotional states . In this study, on the other hand, a high level of emotional attention predicted a greater probability of consumption due to peer pressure, a result that was the same for the older group . These data are in line with what was found in previous literature: Higher levels of emotional attention were associated with alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis abuse in adolescents and university students . In this sense, emotional attention hasshown positive associations with anxiety, depression, and misadjusted coping strategies such as ruminative thinking in young people . Given that the onset of cannabis use occurs at around the age of 14 , it could make sense that emotional attention acts as a facilitator of consumption in middle adolescence, a period in which the search for personal identity, distancing from family values, and the need for peer acceptance are also accentuated.

Since to our knowledge cannabis policies and changes in the perceived availability by adolescents were not previously explored in the European context, these results offer an interesting insight into the aforementioned relationship. Concerning cannabis use outcomes, our results show that only some cannabis policy reforms were associated to significant changes in the prevalence. This can be considered an important finding in itself as it confirms that there is not an automatic link between cannabis policy and use , and that other factors may play an important role. Among these, we can mention information and prevention programs, but also the actual level of implementation and enforcement of reforms.They can affect the perception of risk and knowledge of adolescents, as well the social acceptability of drug use in a country, which are in turn associated with substance use.As highlighted by a previous study conducted in Europe , the heterogeneity found in the effects of cannabis policy reforms concerning the prevalence of use highlights the importance of making distinctions between different types of cannabis users.

In fact, in line with previous findings different results are obtained for different types of consumers. When considering all types of users, two categories of policies show an effect: among the more restrictive ones, only the one increasing the non-prison penalties seem to significantly reduce overall cannabis use, and among the more liberal interventions, only the one favouring the discontinuation of criminal proceedings for minor cases is linked to an increase. These results are confirmed when focusing on experimental usersor excluding frequent users from the analysis. Furthermore, those reforms reducing the maximum prison penalty for cannabis possession show a positive effect on the share of experimental users only. When finally considering only frequent users, i.e. students smoking cannabis daily or almost daily, the policy effects observed before disappear and no reforms seem to have an effect. This result is not in line with the finding from Shi et al. indicating that cannabis liberalisation in Europe was associated with higher likelihood of regular use. It is instead supported by a revision of the same study that highlighted how, by implementing some statistical improvements, this association becomes statistically non-significant.

The finding is also in line with some recent within-country studies conducted to analyse some form of cannabis liberalisation policies in the US.In these studies, no discernible pattern was detected suggesting an increases in cannabis frequent use among adolescent related to the legalisation of medical marijuana. Overall, these results offer three main insights. First, the fact that some of the reforms reducing the penalties for cannabis possession are associated to an increase in some measures of adolescent cannabis use signal that those reforms might have somehow reduced stigma and perceptions of risk associated with cannabis use . This is in light of the fact that no increase was observed concerning adolescent perceived easy access to the substance, indicating the the other main factor on which the policy reforms might have acted did not change significantly. A shift in social norms regarding cannabis use may have, instead, increased cannabis use among experimental and non-frequent users . On the contrary, in those countries where the civil penalties for cannabis possession where increased,the reduction in the share of experimental and non-frequent users was coupled by a reduction in their perception of cannabis availability.

This might indicate that this kind of policy was effective in reducing access through informal channels or increasing the price of this substance on the black market for those sub-populations of users. Second, it has to be considered that one fundamental reason for increasing the level of prohibition is that positive social externalities should be larger than the social costs of repression and private benefits for users . In fact, the failure in achieving this objective has lead several countries to move towards depenalisation and legalisation in recent years . Our results confirm that some of these reforms are linked to a reduction in the share of students approaching this substance, which is in line with this objective. However, the fact that no reduction is observed in the share of frequent users, who are those at higher risk, signal a limited public health impact of this approach among adolescents at higher risk, which might in turn reduce its social externalities. A similar reasoning can be applied to the Hungarian case , which applies the more severe punishments for cannabis possession, and where no significant change was observed either in the perceived availability or in the share of cannabis users following the policy reform. Finally, the absence of a significant decrease in the share of frequent cannabis users associated to any of the policy changes, might signal a limited role of policies overall in achieving results among this high-risk population. In this light, investments in evidencebased adolescent substance use prevention programs would be advisable.

Over biosynthesis of proline by the overexpression of P5CS may play an important role in flower initiation and bolting promotion at the early stage of plant development . Lower photosynthetic pigments and fluorescence with higher accumulation of proline in the present study indicate a stress response of plants in the L1 treatment . This stress may be due to the lower intensity of natural light under greenhouse conditions. Carbohydrates are the main source of energy and are considered the main criterion of cell division activity in plants, and their concentration depends on the amount of photosynthetically active radiation . In a previous study, it was reported that UV-A light inflfluenced the plants to accumulate more carbohydrates , whereas at a low R:FR ratio plants accumulated more soluble sugar, carbohydrates, and secondary metabolites . The ratio of red spectrum ranged from 40 to 60%, with other light sources increasing the TSC and sugar in L7, L8, L9, and L10 .

The monochromatic red, blue, and their combined spectra manifested decreased soluble carbohydrate in Anthurium cut flowers in a previous study . Our present study also found a lower TSC and sucrose content in combined red-blue spectra compared to all other treatments. From the PCA analysis, it can be revealed that both the TSC and sucrose content manifested a negative correlation with SL, LL, and LW and are closely associated with the L9 treatment. A possible explanation is based on the fact that under stress plants produce excess carbon skeletons to prevent the declining trend in photosynthetic rate and growth in plants, which help to increase osmolytes production . The reduced photosynthetic pigments , LL, and LW under the L9 treatment in the present study quite support this hypothesis. Our study found a similar pattern of TSC and sucrose content while little dissimilarities were also observed from ascorbic acid under different light spectra. It was narrated that TSC are the precursor for ascorbic acid biosynthesis, and mature green tomatoes can achieve both compounds in higher amounts under high irradiance of light, but no correlations were observed in a series of experiments between them .

These results indicate that the accumulation of sucrose content and TSC is interdependent, whereas ascorbic acid is independent of both compounds. Moreover, plants accumulate all osmoprotectant molecules significantly higher when the green light was added to the other light spectra , compared to the red and blue combination . Since ancient times, wild or naturalized plants have provided social security to millions of people globally, in the form of fuel, food, fodder, supplements, raw materials for industries, medicines, and especially a source of additional income . According to the World Health Organization, about 65–80% of people in developing countries are reliant on herbal remedies made from medicinal plants.The Indian Himalayan region was well-known for its floristic diversity, with approximately 1748 medicinal plant species reported from the region , which were used in various fifields of chemistry, pharmacological research, pharmacognosy, and clinical therapeutic studies . Himachal Pradesh is the northeastern state of India, geographically divided into three distinct regions; the outer Himalayas , the mid-hills, and the greater Himalayas, which cover an area of 55,673 km2 . Due to its diverse climatic, topographic, and geographical position or altitude, the state of Himachal Pradesh represents a rich source of biodiversity.

According to the data of the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia Committee , out of 1100 single-ingredient drugs, 350 plant species belong to native therapeutic groups, among which 225 species blooms in the state of Himachal Pradesh and were obtained commercially . Angiosperms, including 1003 species of dicotyledons, belonging to 498 genera and 313 species of monocotyledons, belonging to 133 genera. Whereas, the gymnosperms are characterized by only 10 species and 8 genera in the state . The contribution of dicotyledons and monocotyledons to the world flora is approximately 81.3 and 18.7 percent, respectively, with the Shimla district accounting for 23.3 percent of monocotyledon species . Approximately 500 species of medicinal plants have been reported from Himachal Pradesh . From the very beginning of human civilization, people have been developing their knowledge of plant use, management, and conservation. Indigenous people seem to have a hierarchical knowledge of these traditional medicinal plants for a variety of human diseases, and this knowledge has been passed on from one generation to the next . This study documents the accumulated knowledge regarding plants in the Maraog region that has traditionally been employed for the treatment of different human diseases.

Future research could focus on consumer understanding of hemp food’s specific properties and improve consumer education to address the identified lack of understanding. This may be of benefit to both the hemp food industry, and the medicinal cannabis quarter. The findings also point to a potential for the development of a strain of cannabis fit for human consumption which is free from THC. While it is beyond the scope of this research and the competency of the researchers to suggest how or if this might be achieved, it would appear that innovation in food production is currently achieving goals never before imagined. Genetic modification, 3D printed foods, and foods produced using ultrasound or infusion heat treatment, for example, are highly advanced production methods for novel foods that may only be the tip of the innovation in the food production iceberg.

Based on the reduction in seed development as compared to other crossing combinations, the triploids were determined to be infertile.As far as we are aware, this research represents the first report of triploid C. sativa female infertility. Whether the infertility of the triploids directly mitigates the yield reduction by pollination was not addressed in this study, and therefore is still unknown. Further research is necessary to demonstrate the effect of infertility on the development of cannabinoids in high pollen versus low or no pollen conditions. Nonetheless, it can be speculated that infertility might improve cannabinoid yield by the following two different mechanisms: by avoiding the termination of inflorescence development and/or by avoiding reductions in cannabinoid accumulation. Similarly to Arabidopsis, C. sativa has an indeterminate inflorescence architecture, which means the inflorescences keep growing and developing additional flowers until a specific event sends a signal to halt the flowering process.

In the Arabidopsis model, successful pollination can induce AGAMOUS expression , which will trigger downstream signals to end flflowering and begin flower senescence . The triploid plants in our research showed no response to pollination, which could be a sign that the terminal flowering signals might not initiate in the triploid plants following a pollen challenge. On the other hand, seed development after pollination may alter carbon resource allocation, which might reduce the development of inflorescences and secondary metabolism synthesis. Our research showed that triploid plants rarely produced seeds following pollination, and could therefore suggest that plants will not allocate carbon resources from flower development or cannabinoid synthesis to seed development. It is also possible that neither of these physiological processes are impacted, but rather the reduction in cannabinoid content in pollinated flowers is merely due to a dilution effect of the presence of seeds, which do not contain the cannabinoid-producing trichomes. More research on the effect of infertility on cannabinoid development is warranted to further confirm the value of commercial triploid cultivars.

Although plants containing even numbers of chromosomes are generally considered fertile, reduced fertility or even infertility have been reported in other species containing even ploidies. For example, the allotetraploid, or natural tetraploid, Hibiscus acetosella ‘Panama Red’ has been reported as producing no viable seeds . Tetraploid foxtail millet cultivars displayed a two-fold reduction in fertility as compared to their diploid counterparts . Reporting the reduced fertility of tetraploid C. sativa has important implications for the hemp breeding and hemp seed industries. Our results indicate that the investment of producing triploid seeds may be higher than producing diploid seeds, due to the lower seed numbers produced in the tetraploid × diploid crosses studiedin this research.

To compensate for the reduced seed number, more intense pollination or extending the pollination period may be recommended. Furthermore, the asymmetric nature of the crosses involving the tetraploid, at least as observed in the genotypes tested in the current study, indicate that the selection and breeding of the pollen recipient as the tetraploid parent has important ramifications for the success in breeding triploid C. sativa. The unidirectional compatibility or asymmetric interploidy crossing compatibility of hemp might be caused by an asymmetric triploid block. A triploid block is a phenomenon in which seed development fails due to an imbalance in genome size and gene expression between the parents of different ploidies; in many cases, triploid block leads to abnormal development or underdevelopment of the endosperm and embryo .