Cannabis Grow

Amorphous cellulose and hemicellulose are mostly responsible for the high water uptake of natural fibers, since they contain numerous easily accessible hydroxyl groups which give a high level of hydrophilic character to fibers.Although UV light makes up only about 5% of sunlight, it is responsible for most of the sunlight damage to the materials, especially polymers, exposed outdoors. This is because photochemical effectiveness of light increases with decreasing wavelength. This rupture causes changes in molecular weight, formation of cross-links, and reaction with oxygen. These structural changes lead to gross physical changes such as chalking, cracking, surface embrittlement,discolouring and loss of tensile and impact strength .In one study on the effect of weathering on polyester resin, the resin was exposed to actinic rays in a twin arcfadeometer . An exposure of 400 – 700 hours was considered equivalent to one year of outdoor exposure.

Initially there was no visible change after several hundred hours of exposure. Then the yellowing of the samples suddenly became noticeable. The tensile strength of the resin deteriorated from 66 MPa to 47 MPa after 2400 hours of exposure. Similarly the flexural strength deteriorated from 90 MPa to 82 MPa after same exposure period.To simulate the physical damage caused by sunlight it is not necessary to reproduce the entire spectrum of sunlight. In many cases it is only necessary to simulate the short wavelength. To overcome the problem of UV light, ultraviolet absorbers, such as carbon black or aromatic ketones, are added to polymers.The amount of moisture absorbed by the polymer matrix composite depends on the matrix type, exposure time, component geometry, relative humidity, temperature, and exposure conditions. Typical consequences of exposure of composite materials to these environments are: plasticisation of matrix, resulting in reduction in glass transition temperature and usable range, changes in dimensions and fibre/matrix debonding due to matrixand fibre swelling, enhanced creep and stress relaxation, resulting in increased ductility, change in coefficient of expansion, reduction in ultimate strength and stiffness, matrix cracking, and chain scission .

In case of natural fibre reinforced composites, additional problems are encountered because of hydrophilic nature of natural fibres. The moisture content of natural fibres can vary between 5% and 10%. This can lead to dimensional variations in composites and also affects mechanical properties of composites. It can cause fibres to swell and ultimately rot through attack by fungi. A possible solution is to improve fibre-matrix interface by using compatibilizers and adhesion promoters. With better adhesion, the moisture sensitivity is usually reduced .Also surface treatments of fibres with silanes can make the fibres more hydrophobic.The study of weathering properties of natural fibre composites is a new and growing field. The use of accelerated weathering testing is a preferred method for this purpose whereby the outdoor exposure conditions are simulated in laboratory in controlled atmosphere and in accelerated conditions which can reproduce the damage to the material in few days or weeks that actually occurs over months or years of outdoor exposure.A number of studies have recently been carried out which have examined the effects of accelerated weathering on the properties of natural fibre composites. Generally, all types of natural fibre composites show fading of colour and reduction in mechanical properties following exposure to natural and accelerated weathering conditions.

The use of coupling agents, fibre surface treatments, ultraviolet absorbers and pigments to improve the weathering resistance has been reported to have positive effects on composites. The effect of UV radiation only and UV radiation plus condensation on weight of these composites is shown in Figure 3. It was observed that the composites started to lose weight soon after exposure to these conditions. The increase in weight loss for UV exposed composites was greater than for UV plus condensation exposed composites. Whereas UV exposed composites lost nearly 3.2% of their original weight following 250 hours of exposure,UV plus condensation exposed composites lost only about 0.2% of their original weight following same exposure time. It has been shown that when unsaturated polyester resins are heated, the polymer chain begins to dissociate chemically and that polyesters have maximum photochemical sensitivity at wavelength of 325 nm. Since the UV radiation used in this study had a wavelength of 340 nm, it is expected that this resulted indegradation of the upper polyester layer of the composites resulting in loss of weight. This degradation is a manifestation of chain scission and breaking of bonds between polymer molecules following exposure to UV radiation.However following increased exposure times, as the UV radiation interacted with the hemp fibres, the fibres offered more resistance to UV radiation.

The increasing environmental awareness, growing global waste problems and continuously rising high crude oil prices have motivated governments all over the world to increase the legislative pressure. This in turn promotes researchers, industries and farmers to develop the concepts of environmental sustainability and reconsider renewable resources. Renewable resources from agricultural or forestry products form a basis for new industrial products or alternative energy sources, such as hemp fibre. Hemp fibres have long been valued for their high strength and long fibre length, and used extensively in the fabrication of ropes and sails, as well as for paper and textiles. Hemp fibres consist of different hierarchical microstructures, whereby microfibrils serve as basic units.

The microfibrils are embedded in a matrix of hemicelluloses and form the different cell wall layers of an elementary fibre, which generally has a large average diameter ranging from 10 to 50 m.The elementary fibres are bonded together with pectin’s and small amounts of lignin framing the next level of microstructure, i.e. technical fibres, with a diameters ranging from 50 to 100 m . These filaments are fixed together with a pectin-lignin matrix to form fibre bundles in the cortex of plant stems. Thus, bast fibres are bundles of individual strands of fibres held to-gether by a pectin-lignin interface. The fibres of never dried hemp contain numerous de-formations. All these deformations appear where there is a change in microfibril direction and a distorsion of the fibrils. The deformations can be seen under polarized light, but the largest of them also could be dis-cerned without polarisers.

The deformation of fibres can affect the strain distribution in elementary fibre, leading to localized strain concentrations , and hence reduce both compressive strength and tensile strength , which was also proved by a finite element modeling of the tensile behaviour of single flax and hemp fibre. The fibres in the matrix may break at the point with deformations , and the concentration of stresses around the deformation could act as the site of initiation of fibre-matrix debonding as well as for the formation of micro-cracks in the matrix which contribute to global fracture of composite. Limited work conducted on the breaking behaviour of wood pulp, cotton , and flaxalso indicated that the break behaviour of the primary and secondary cell wall of the flax fibres was different from that of wood and cotton . The primary cell wall generally breaks in a brittle manner, whereas the secondary cell wall, bridged by fibrils, splits relatively easily along the length direction. The experience has highlighted that it is not possible to use or appropriate to compare data available from different investigations reported in the literatures.

Microstructural defects, fibre abstraction and processing are all yet to be studied. This pa-per is an attempt to characterize the surface and reveal the failure mechanism of elementary hemp fibres. Systematic and improved methodologies and advanced technologies have been developed to investigate the microfibril angles of elementary hemp fibres and the crystallinity of hemp fibres. The surface of hemp fibres after tensile loading and fracture of fibres after breaking were also observed carefully to characterize the surface and reveal the failure mechanism of elementary hemp fibres. This paper is the first of a series of papers from an intensive research programme aiming at a better understanding of natural fibre resources and the develop-ment of their high strength composites for applications in various industrial sectors. The purpose of this article is two-fold. First, we advocate the use of mathematical models to characterize the learning process for researchers interested in exploring the effects of marijuana on learning and memory. While articles contain the results of statistical tests, to our knowledge no previous article has promoted the use of mathematical models to characterize potential learning and memory effects either on marijuana or other plant based products purporting to improve memory.

Mathematical models have much to recommend them for the study of marijuana and other plant based products. Such models can easily summarize large amounts of data, direct research, stimulate the development of theory, and guide therapeutic intervention. They can also be used to test claims made by advocates of plant based products that such products improve learning and memory.Second, we advocate the use of the first order system transfer function. We have used this model in a wide variety of studies ranging from the assessment of memory in drug addicts and alcoholics to the detection of memory impairment in individuals suffering from either Type-2 diabetes mellitus or multiples clerosis. The model has also been applied to both the child and adult versions of the California Verbal Learning Test .

Other frontal areas and regions of the parietal lobe, as well as subcortical areas are also affected by marijuana exposure. Moreover, the three circuits involved in response inhibition,namely the frontal-striatal thalamic circuit, the cingulo-opercular circuit and frontal-parietal circuit, are all still under development during adolescence.Therefore,the overactive brain regions observed in this investigation may be due not only to the current marijuana use but also to the relatively long term marijuana exposure during those crucial years in adolescence.The strength of this study was the ability to control foran unparalleled number of lifestyle variables including IQ, current nicotine and alcohol use and prenatal marijuana,nicotine, and alcohol exposure. The well controlled sample strengthens the validity of the results and provides outcomes that are able to shed light on more exclusive contributions of marijuana on the response inhibition network than previous studies.

The limitations of the study include that the sample was small and a primarily Caucasian, middle-class population.Thus, these results cannot be generalized to other ethnic or socioeconomic status populations. However,this is a low risk population and these effects are significant, suggesting that a high risk population would be even more likely to show a negative impact of marijuana use given the other risk factors.The present study also used a block design rather than an event related design. Thus, an event-related study may have helped to separate response inhibition from other cognitive processes. It is also difficult to ever truly remove a drug’s effect from a BOLD study and thus it must be considered that current use of nicotine impacted the result seven after using it as a covariate. Similarly, there was no measure of alcohol consumption on the day of testing other than the self-report of each participant. Although the self-report and urine sample values were highly correlated for those drugs tested in the urine, this was an oversight for the alcohol consumption and should be rectified with the addition of a breath alcohol level assessment in future research.

Finally, there was no abstinence period for the participants of either group. However,careful statistical analyses were performed including and not including those participants who smoked marijuana on the day of testing. Even though these analyses had less power than the reported results, the same positive relationship between amount of marijuana smoked and neural activity was observed. This suggests that the reported results are indicative of the regular marijuana use and not only acute marijuana effects. Future research will test participants who have stopped using marijuana for at least 6 months.In conclusion, adolescent use of marijuana can have detrimental effects on the brain that can be observed in young adulthood. The findings in this study suggest that increase in neural activation with increased marijuana use may be due to a form of neural compensation or an altered neural development, or both. Also, this may occur not only in the prefrontal cortex but also in the extensive neural network required for inhibitory control, a cognitive process important for executive functioning and thus success in establishing and reaching appropriate goals during adulthood.

The valorization of plant biomass through the use of ligneous resources for the design and production of composite structures is a current issue in the research sector and applications in automotive, construction, goods and leisure industries are more and more observable. This visibility is demonstrated by the manufacturing of equipments such as: prostheses, tennis rackets, turbine blades, vehicle doors, shutters and roofs, etc.. Moreover, the use of products obtained from these materials is in line with the Kyoto Protocol’s requirements for sustainable development and environmental protection . Thus, the rush to substitute synthetic fibers with natural fibers in composite structures is justified.Apart from their eco-friendly aspect, biofibers stand out for remarkable specific mechanical properties and relatively low cost. However, their qualities depend on the quality of the fabrication. The choice of the manufacturing process of an ecological composite requires the knowledge of some fundamental elements. Thermal behaviours such as the maximum degradation temperature and the thermal stability range of the fiber are indispensable. Physical characteristic slike porosity, density and water absorption capacity have to be specified.In addition to these parameters,crystallinity rate and chemical composition of the fibre will be an undeniable asset.The natural fibers characteristics depend on a number of factors like the age of the plant from which the fibers are extracted, the part of the plant where the fibers are located and the fibers extraction technique used .The plant fibers most widely used as reinforcement for composite materials a reflax, sisal, hemp, jute and kenaf .

Acute pulmonary injury caused by SC inhalation is a rare event but is expected to become more common. This case demonstrates the severe life-threatening and rapid deterioration that may ensue after smoking concentrated SC through a water pipe.Immediate recognition of impending respiratory insufficiency with the subsequent need for endotracheal intubation and provision of ECMO for continued failure of adequate ventilation and gas exchange must remain an immediate priority. With the recent increase in complications of SC reported recently,one would expect there will be many more cases to come.Radiologic patterns characteristic of SC-induced pulmonary toxicity can be defined as diffuse, acute patches of alveolar infiltrates with patchy air bronchograms.

This classic radiologic presentation is a function of bronchial endothelial injury which often presents as a diffuse centrilobular nodule with tree-in-bud pattern.This response results in a pattern of injury consistent with organizing pneumonia.Histopathologic findings of organizing pneumonia are also characteristic in patients with chronic SC associated lung injury.CT radiograph may show a diffuse miliary-micronodular pattern and Chest CT may demonstrate diffuse centrilobular nodules and tree-in-bud pattern. For patients who present with unexplained pulmonary infiltrates as described above, SC use should be included on the list of differential diagnoses. An appropriate history must be taken, and drug screen testing may be indicated.In some cases,toxic metabolites have been linked to direct alveolar or bronchopulmonary injury leading to DAH . These reported metabolites have been found to vary in chemical makeup and concentrations, resulting in a range of heterogeneous effects and potency.

Testing for these cannabinoids is imperfect. ELISA is limited by the number of detectable metabolites and is not commercially available. Recently,a case of DAH associated with the SC metabolite UR-144, UR-144 N has been published . Because of the direct toxic injury,steroids have been administered and may be an effective measure. Further investigation is needed.Cannabidiol inhalation products have become increasingly available.Common routes of inhalation include water pipes and electronic delivery. Recent reports from lay press have raised concerns that vaping CBD could be more detrimental when compared to water pipe inhalation due to unknown additives such as SC in the vaping solution .ECMO has proven to be crucial in the management of nicotine vaping related pulmonary injuries . With recent CBD vaping trends in combination with an unregulated market, early anticipation and intervention with ECMO may becrucial and possibly lifesaving going forward. Agrotextiles are a kind of engineering textiles used in the agriculture, horticulture,gardening and construction. Depending on the final application, the composition,production method and properties change.Erosion Control Blanketis a kind of agrotextile. It is aimed at strengthening the soil. It is composed by a high percentage of biodegradable natural fibers. The vegetable waste pruning can be processed by Wet laid technology to obtain non-woven for different applications of ECB or composites .

The Wet laid is a processing technique highly used in the paper and textile industry for nonwoven formation. In the case of nonwoven textiles, it is possible to obtain non-woven structures based on different base components both raw and waste materials so that it is possible to mix a base natural fibre with a binding fibre to provide cohesion after a thermo-bonding process. The Wetlaid process, which uses highly diluted fibre-water dispersions, is an eco-friendly process since, although it consumes high water amounts, all the water is recirculated as it only acts as the fibre carrier component so that, almost all water is recovered in the hydro former station in which non-woven formation occurs .The non-woven or ECB can have an increase in its functional properties for agriculture by micro-capsules incorporation.Microen capsulation is a technology that allows sensitive materials to be physically enveloped in a protective “wall material”, in order to protect these ingredients or “core” materials, from adverse reactions, volatile loss, weathering, etc.The selection of wall material for each core material is important; i.e.,carbohydrates such as maltodextrins, starches, Arabic gum , alginate, chitosan, or mixtures thereof , etc., have been all widely used as encapsulation agents.Biopolymers, like alginate, are used as encapsulating materials in several applications,more commonly, in food and pharmaceutical applications.This polymer is not supposed to affect the encapsulated compound activity ; it shows high toughness and it has considerable effects on the mechanical stability of beads .

Results presented here suggest a similar attenuation of oxidative stress markers in physically active marijuana smokers. Perhaps routine exercise can prove beneficial to protect against ROS production from marijuana smoking. Larger, longer term studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis,in particular involving a control group of inactive marijuana smokers.Considering the above, it is not surprising given our subject sample that differences between the smokers and non-smokers were not apparent. Prior studies focused on marijuana smokers have noted increased oxidative stress markers in self-reported marijuana smokers. For instance, alveolar macrophages isolated from marijuana smokers displayed lower intracellular GSH levels . Moreover,marijuana smokers reportedly exhibited increased levels of MDA with lower blood GSH and total antioxidant capacity, though this study made no mention of participant exercise status .

This discrepancy in our data from previously reported data is likely attributed to the beneficial adaptations to chronic exercise.In addition to protective effects of exercise against oxidative stress, it may protect cardio-metabolic parameters as well. Previous reports suggest marijuana smokers have increased systolic and diastolic blood pressure,with reduced high density lipoprotein-cholesterol. Regular participation in aerobic and resistan cetraining can result in a lowering of SBP and DBP, which may suggest why blood pressure differences were not observed in our physically active marijuana smokers. Though we did not measure HDL-C, it would have been interesting to see if our active marijuana smokers had any reduction in HDL-C, considering the expected increase with regular exercise .Related to the above findings, it is important to mention the limitations of our study. First, subjects were only required to have smoked marijuana for a minimum of three months prior to participating in this study. It is possible that long-term use of marijuana may have resulted in differing findings. Second, we only measured two commonly used biomarkers of oxidative stress and did so in blood samples.

It is possible that different findings could have been observed if other biomarkers were included and/or if we had used other tissue. Third, since we did not provide the marijuana directly to subjects, it is possible that the potency of the plant varied from person to person and from use to use.Fourth, while we included physical active subjects in this study, we did not have sedentary individuals acting as controls. This should be considered in future studies, as many marijuana smokers may be sedentary and this behavior may lead to differing results as compared to what was observed in the present study.Clearly, the above limitations need to be considered, as the findings of the present study should not suggest that marijuana smoking can be done without harm. There exists multiple papers documenting the concerns of marijuana use,the first of which may be “marijuana use disorder” for which approximately 30% of users meet criteria, as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders .

Moreover, users of marijuana, in particular heavy users,are more likely to have problems with use of alcohol and other drugs . It has been demonstrated that acute marijuana smoking impairs driving performance, with an increase in motor vehicle fatalities linked to marijuana legalization. Both short-term and long-term use can lead to cognitive performance decline. Individuals should consider these facts and utilize the data presented in this study only in the context of the “big picture”. Recent studies have shown that the prevalence of marijuana use increased in the United States over the past decade. Among young adults, aged 18 – 29, the percentage reporting past-year marijuana increased from 17.7% in 2005 to 29.2%in 2015 . Although the prevalence of use has remained steady among high school students, annual marijuana use among college students reached a level not seen since the late 1980s . The prevalence of depressive disorders has also been on the rise in the United States . Past month prevalence among adults was about 10% in 2017 ,which is substantially higher than in 2002. The prevalence of major depressive disorders increased from 8.7% in 2005 to 11.3% in 2014 among adolescents, aged 12 – 17, and from 8.8% to 9.6% among young adults, aged 18 -25 .

These coincident trends among young people are likely due to a host of structural,demographic, social, and psychological factors. Nonetheless, research has shown that there is a consistent individual-level association between marijuana use and depressive symptomatology. It is not clear, though, whether this association is causal in nature or due to confounding factors. Studies have provided evidence in support of several hypotheses, including that factors such as personal and interpersonal stressors affect the probability of both marijuana use and depressive symptoms ; that more frequent marijuana use increases the risk of depressive symptoms; and that young people initiate or increase marijuana use following the onset or rise of depressive symptoms.

An amount of 30.5 g of the Mueller-Hintonagar, dehydrated culture media was dissolved in 1L of deionized water and then heated to dissolve completely. Disk diffusion tests were conducted to determine bacterial sensitivity towards AgNPs . The Luria agar was sterilized in the autoclave at 120˚C for 15 minutes. After cooling to around 45˚C, the broth was dispensed into sterile Petri dishes. A 3-way swab plate was prepared on an agarplate and filter disks were placed at intervals on the surface of plates using sterile forceps. The plates were incubated at 37˚C for 24 hours. 10 μlaliquots of 1 mM and 5 mM AgNPs were impregnated on filter disk having uniform bacterial suspensions of E. coli and S. aureus. The diameter of the zone of inhibitionwas measured using photographic images of the agar plates .Using the broth dilution method, the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of AgNPs was determined and the bactericidal effect of AgNPs was evaluated based on the Minimum Bactericidal Concentration .

The MIC was defined as the lowest concentration of AgNPs, which inhibited bacterial growth.The MBC value was defined as the lowest concentration of nanoparticles that prevented the visible growth of bacteria on the agar plates after incubation. A volume of 0.2 mL of each bacterial strain was added to the test tube containing 1ml broth and was mixed with a serial dilution of 1 mMAgNPs. Positive controls contained 1 mL of Luria broth and 0.2 mL of E. coli and S. aureus strain without containing AgNPs. The negative control contained only Luria broth. Tubes were incubated at 37˚C for 24 hours. Each sample was examined for bacterial growth by monitoring the changes in the visual turbidity with the naked eye. The tubes that appeared to have no or little growth were plated on Luria broth agar plates to differentiate between bactericidal and/or bacteriostatic effect and these plates were incubated at 37˚C for another 24 hours. Marijuana is about to become legal in Canada. Consequently, an analysis of its effects on users is a high priority. Canadian researchers have explored this issue to some extent but there are gaps in what is known about the effects of using marijuana. Most of the Canadian studies, whose results are summarized in Section 3, focus on youth or adolescent use. This is clearly important as is adult use.

The link between early usage and its effect over an individual’s lifetime also needs to be examined. One of the most surprising results that we found is that almost all users start when they are teenagers2. This means that the age group under 21 is the one that should be the center of our attention.It also means that we will not be able to examine the effects of marijuana use on late starters, an issue of considerable interest since it is likely that some Canadian adults will start smoking marijuana because it is no longer illegal and is likely to be more socially acceptable.That using marijuana is a health hazard is not an issue in dispute. The health literature on marijuana use surveyed below finds that using marijuana as an adolescent has a negative impact on both physical and mental health. Longitudinal studies show that individuals who start around the age of 15 and continue to be regular and significant usersin to early adulthood suffer memory loss, cognitive function impairment, diminished IQ, and lower educational success rates. Early users also suffer physically in terms of higher rates of respiratory diseases and higher rates of certain cancers.

What these studies do not show is the duration of these effects. Do they become less debilitating as individuals age or are they of a more permanent nature? Our results show that the damage is permanent. The costs of starting to use marijuana at the age of 15 are borne by the individual for his or her whole lifetime. What is more disturbing is that this result was obtained without any information on actual usage at age of first use.What teenagers use on average when they start to use marijuana imposes health costs on them for the rest of their lives.The paper has the following format. The next section reviews the literature on the health implications of using marijuana. Section 3 discusses the variables, which can be used to measure the effects of marijuana use as well the data employed in our analysis.Section 4 outlines the statistical procedures employed. Section 5 contains our results and they are discussed in Section 5.

The long-term effect of cannabis use is an important medical policy issue, yet there is much uncertainty about it. This is partly due to the limited number of longitudinal studies which have examined marijuana use over extended periods of time and the limitations of sample surveys, which so far have not been able to accurately determine the adverse health effects of regular or early use of marijuana. This is worrying since Rottermanet al.estimated that 43% of Canadians, who are 15 years of age or older used marijuana at least once in their lifetime. As attitudes towards marijuana use become more tolerant and use increases, a better understanding of its effects becomes even more important.

The accumulation of N in corn roots increased with time. These results indicate that there are also losses due to shedding, root exudation and root death, losses of N from the aerial part are much more expressive, and the aerial part N can be translocated to the roots reflecting on the accumulation of N in roots . There was an increase in dry matter mass of the corn aerial part up until 100 DAE. At that stage, the plants were beginning to flower. The only significant difference observed was at the first time, when the check plants produced more than those with green manure. In the Paleudalf soil it is observed that larger N amounts of the green manure went to the corn plants , and a larger amount of N was lost from the system, indicating higher mineralization of nitrogen in that soil. Studies developed with the addition of organic N to soils rarely exceed 20% in their use and indicate that the greatest proportion of N contained in its manures can be beneficial to the subsequent crop as well as to other crops in a rotation system due to its residual effect. Industrial hemp has been a historical source for various compounds and metabolites.

One group of compounds harvested from industrial hemp is cannabidiol , which does not include tetrahydro cannabinol, the cannabinoid found in marijuana plants that is responsible for the psychological effects. Industrial hemp produces very low amounts of THC. Cannabidiols are one specific type of cannabinoid produced by industrial hemp. Several different products come from industrial hemp through utilization of various parts of the plant. For instance, hemp fiber from the stem has been used for textiles and construction materials, while the oil from the seeds is used in cosmetics and other personal care items . In addition to the industrial uses of the plant, there is a growing interest in the pharmaceutical applications of industrial hemp.Cannabidiols have been used in the treatment of epilepsy, as an appetite enhancer,as an antidepressant, and also as an analgesic . Researchers have also discovered the potential benefits of CBD’s as an anti-inflammatory and aid in sleep support.

Other products containing CBD have shown anti-stress and relaxation qualities without the drowsy feeling that other anti-stress and anxietymedications may cause. As the plant produces a wide variety of cannabinoids,on which research is just beginning, there is a need for large amounts of compound-producing plant tissue to be grown in controlled environments.There are various procedures to yield plant tissue, but one unique way is through tissue culture.The tissue culture method breaks tradition, in that, there is no soil or sunshine needed to initiate production and growth of the cells. In the wild and in agriculture,there are many confounding variables that can impact plant growth and compound production. Plant tissue culture is one method to ensure the least amount of confounding variables for plant growth. In addition, this in vitro approach is the quickest and most reliable way to preserve a germ line that has been bred for the production of specific compounds. The process involves aseptic cultures, exemplified through thorough sterilization of plant tissue, a nutrient medium containing mineral salts, sugars and hormones for the explant tissue to thrive, and the production of callus as the explant utilizes the nutrients in the medium .

The purposes of this study were to determine: 1) the optimal concentrations/ratios of auxin-to-cytokinin; and 2) to determine an optimal mineral salts mix in media to generate and grow tissue callus for select cultivars of industrial hemp. The sterilized leaf tissue was cut into explants in the sterile hood. The tissue was generally cut into 3 cross sections/explants per leaf using a sterile scalpel and tweezers then placed on the appropriate treatment media. Three explants were placed on each Petri dish. The plates were then sealed with parafilm to ensure they did not dry out and to also help minimizing the risk of contamination. All plates were stored in the dark in an incubator at 25˚C for approximately 30 days.The explant/callus was inspected frequently to ensure contamination had not occurred, and if it had, the callus was moved to another Petriplate of the same hormone concentration to continue growing. Approximately30 days after the setup of the experiment, the explants/callus were weighed and then transferred to fresh media for the callus to continue to grow. When the callus was transferred, it was transferred to the same media type.

The explants were transferred to new media approximately every 30 days four times ,the hormone concentration/ratio and mineral salts media that yielded the most callus was determined through statistical methods for each cultivar. In this experiment, the majority of plates that contained no auxin tended to form  roots.Minocha suggested that the reason media lacking auxin produced roots was because of the availability of endogenousauxin in the plant occurring naturally. Jiang et al .found that the optimal hormone concentration for callus initiation was a 4.4:2.7 ratio.They also found the optimal concentration for callus growth occurred at a 4.6:2.7 ratio.

Finally, it has beneficial effects in the treatment of anxiety, depression and psychosis by alleviating some symptoms of these diseases. In terms of toxicity, CBD has few adverse effects, the most frequent side effects reported being sedation and dizziness.In 2012, a pioneering randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial of cannabidiol versus amisul pride, a potent antipsychotic medication, demonstrated that CBD has comparable antipsychotic properties in alleviating both positive and negative schizophrenia symptoms and yields to similar significant clinical improvement than amisulpride in the treatment of acute schizophrenia .Moreover, CBD displayed a substantially superior side-effect profile than that of amisulpride. Indeed, compared to amisulpride, treatment with CBD was associated with significantly fewer extrapyramidal symptoms , less weight gain and lower prolactin increase, a predictor of galactorrhea and sexual dysfunction .

Furthermore, CBD was well tolerated and did not significantly affect cardiac or hepatic functions. Interestingly, the results of Leweke et al. were correlated with increased levels of anandamide, suggesting that inhibition of anandamide deactivation may contribute to the antipsychotic effects of CBD which potentially represents a completely new mechanism of action in the treatment of schizophrenia.In summary, studies conducted with cannabidiol show that cannabis types with a high concentration of cannabidiol are significantly less strongly associated with psychotic symptoms. By regulating dopaminergic activities, CBD has the features of a potential efficient antipsychotic medication, while being deprived of the deleterious side effects of the conventional antipsychotic pharmacotherapies.In fact, CBD exerts clinically relevant antipsychotic effects and has a better safety and tolerability profile compared with current antipsychotic medications . A dose-response relationship exists between the amounts of cannabis used and the likelihood of developing psychosis or psychotic features: the risk increases with the quantity, frequency and duration of cannabis consumption.Similarly, early age of cannabis use is correlated with an increased probability of manifesting such symptoms.

This observation could be explained by the fact that the brain of young people aged between 14 and 25 years has not reached its complete maturation and therefore is more vulnerable to the psychotomimetic effects of THC and the adverse central manifestations of cannabis . These observations illustrate the critical role played by the endo cannabinoid system in the brain maturation, particularly during adolescence.Regarding genetic susceptibility, it has been demonstrated that psychosis inducing effects of cannabis use are related to genetic variability in the catechol-0-methyltransferase gene. This vulnerability increases when individuals are exposed to childhood abuse. Cannabis consumption increases the likelihood of developing psychotic experiences in Val carriers only when they are exposed to childhood abuse. Similarly, AKT1 and DRD2 genotypes are involved in the likelihood of developing psychosis.The characterization of potential genes presenting a risk of psychotic outcomes will facilitate the comprehension of the cannabis-psychosis link and will help identify the persons who present a genetic vulnerability to the psychotogenic effects of cannabis.

Child trauma plays also a deleterious role in the expression of psychosis or psychotic features by a progressive sensitization mechanism: exposure to traumatic experiences during childhood may induce neurobiological changes characterized by an over-reactivity of the hypothalamus and the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis, abnormalities in the neurotransmitter system and structural brain changes .Cigarette smoking has also been considered a risk factor for the development of psychosis or psychotic symptoms.A biological mechanism involving dopamine release and nicotinic cholinergic neurotransmission could be involved .Finally, urbanicity increases the strength of the cannabis-psychosis relationship.This phenomenon could be explained by the fact that living in urban areas may enhance cannabis use and render people more vulnerable to the psychotomimetic effects of THC by neurobiological mechanisms .None of each of the six risk factors described is neither necessary, nor sufficient to do so alone.On the other hand, cannabidiol plays a protective role in the cannabis-psychosis relationship.

Cannabis species with a high concentration of cannabidiol are significantly less strongly associated with psychotic symptoms, rendering CBD a promising efficient antipsychotic medication. Large randomized-controlled clinical trials will eventually confirm or infirm the qualitative and quantitative antipsychotic potential of cannabidiol .However, the causal and temporal association between the use of cannabis and the development of psychosis or psychotic features is not clear and remains controversial. Population statistics argue against the causal relationship.While cannabis use among adolescents has increased substantially in the past 40 years , the population trends in schizophrenia incidence have not .Macleod and colleagues have suggested that a non-causal explanation is possible for most of the associations between cannabis use and psychosis: “Cannabis use could be a marker, rather than a cause of a life trajectory more likely to involve adverse outcomes” .Moreover, a large number of studies cannot determine if psychotic features predispose individuals to use cannabis or if cannabis use increases psychotictraits.

Cytosolic GSgenes were induced following pathogen infection in tobacco and similar induction occurred in Arabidopsis following infectivity by E. amylovora . Glutamine levels have been also correlated with the activation of defense responses in plants .PAL catalyzes the non-oxidative conversion of phenylalanine to cinnamic acid and ammonia. Also, amidases catalyze the hydrolysis of carboxylic amide bonds to liberate carboxylic acids and ammonia. Presently it is unknown if these defense enzymes are involved in the CT and glufosinate interactions as studied here, but it would be a large and interesting undertaking to study.Weed defense mechanisms against pathogens are important to bioherbicidal efficacy and to interactions of bioherbicides and herbicides. PAL activity can increase dramatically in response to various stimuli . This increase denzyme activity leads to increased production of cinnamic acid, phenolic products and phytoalexins, some of which are toxic to bacteria and fungi.

Another product of PAL catalysis is ammonia. This increased enzyme activity leads to increased production of cinnamic acid, phenolic products and phytoalexins,some of which are toxic to bacteria and fungi. Another product of PALcatalysis is ammonia. Furthermore, PAL was suggested as a target site for herbicides and PAL activity was shown to be elevated or inhibited by variousherbicides.The fungal pathogen Alternaria cassiae,has bioherbicidal activity against sicklepod, and alters phenylpropanoidmetabolism in this weed . PAL activity levels were increased prior tovisual symptoms of pathogenesis when A. cassiae spores were applied to seedlings.PAL activity was elevated 3-fold above uninoculated plants and remained high for several days. Similar results were reported for Alternaria crassa, a fungalbioherbicide that controls jimson weed. Many examples have been reported and summarized with respect to the correlation of PALactivity with pathogen challenge and plant defense e.g. . Nitrilases are involved in a wide variety of biological processes, some related to plant defense and certain amidohydrolases are reported to contribute to the biosynthesis of auxin, the ubiquitous plant growth hormone .

Ammonia and creating an alkaline environment are important in the pathogenesis of some plant pathogens. For example, during colonization of a fungus related to CT, ammonia accumulates in the host plantmaking it more alkaline, thus promoting the activities of extracellular enzymes such as pectate lyase . Similarly, ammonia secretion, modulation of pH toalkaline conditions and ammonia accumulation have been shown to be critical factors related to the pathogenicity of C. coccodes on tomato . Plant pathogens and compounds that alter ammonia in a given host, may interact with pathogenesis. Although some typical effects of CTwere observable in the combined treatment of glufosinate and CT, the degree of toxicity of glufosinateon this bioherbicide may have prevented a synergistic interaction response when these two weed control agents were applied at these concentrations together on hemp sesbania. Possibly, by modifying the relative concentrations of glufosinate and CT, i.e. ,so that the herbicide concentration is lowered,while the CT concentration is raised,might result in synergy. Also,glufosinate could be applied and allowed to be absorbed by the weed for a more extended time, which would effectively reduce the herbicide concentration on the weed surface, and perhaps lower toxicity to CT, thus allowing a higher conidial germination rate, formation of appresoria and infection of this weed host.

Synergy is also a concentration dependent phenomenon, and thus altering the concentration ratio of the components may promote or suppress this outcome.Several Colletotrichum species, have been reported to have synergistic interactions with various herbicides . Synergy was also reported in combinations of glufosinate and two bacterial bioherbicides on some weeds . Cannabis is the most widely used drug in the world. According to the UnitedNations Office on Drugs and Crime, the number of cannabis consumers worldwidewas estimated in 2018 to be 192 million users, with the highest prevalencebeen among young people . Cannabis contains 565 known chemicals, of which 144 are grouped under thename cannabinoids. The major psychoactive ingredient of cannabis is delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly known as THC. Other cannabinoids present in Indian hemp include delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol , cannabidiol,cannabinol,cannabicyclol,cannabichromene and cannabigerol.Cannabinoids exert some of their actions by binding to specific receptors: theCB1 cannabinoid receptors, discovered by Devane et al. in 1988 , then cloned by Matsuda et al. in 1990 and the CB2 cannabinoid receptors identified byMunro et al. in 1993 .More than 250 controlled clinical trials have demonstrated their efficacy in a dozen pathologies.

Fresh weight analysis of seedling shoots treated with H2O and with Silwet L-77 were not significantly different from each other in either species and plant growth in the MV and MV-Sector BSH treatments were reduced by 20 and 15%, in hemp sesbania and sicklepod,respectively .Previous studies have examined the effects of MV spore preparations on growth and development of hemp sesbania and sicklepod seeds , and were also chosen for studies here. The effects of imbibing weed seeds in mycelial preparations of MV and MV-Sector BSH showed that MV was slightly more toxic to hemp sesbania than to sickle pod and was also slightly more potent than the MV-SectorBSH to the early growth of both species . Comparison of SDS-PAGE protein profiles on gels of MV and the sector cell extracts,demonstrated that many bands were similar with respect to presence and abundance and Figure 5. However, some differences were observed and generally more bands appeared to be in greater relative abundance in the MV-Sector BSH versus the MV parent gel and Figure 5.

Protein bands 1 and 3 were more abundant in MV versus MV-Sector BSH , whereas four bands were more abundant in the sector compared to its parent. Comparison of the protein profiles of the liquid culture supernatants of un-inoculated media with supernatants of the MV and MV-Sector BSH showed that both organisms were able to transform media proteins. Some differences in protein bands in the media culture supernatants of MV and MV-Sector BSH were observed,possibly indicating differential substrate preference of the organisms for proteins supplied by the media, and/or to variance in the production of extracellular proteins .Other strains of Myrothecium verrucaria are known to produce various hydrolyticenzymes including xylanases , pectinases , and proteases . Such enzymes play important roles in determining host range and virulence. The nature of these protein differences will need to be examined using native gels and 2-Dgel electrophoresis to determine any possible role as virulence factors.Early bioherbicidal studies on spore formulations of this parent strain of MV showed that the fungus produced trichothecenes that have mammalian toxicity.Another M. verrucaria isolate from leafy spurge exhibited a dissimilar weed host specificity range, but also produced trichothecenes .

Although MV possessed desirable bioherbicidal traits , production of undesirable mycotoxins remained problematic with regard to the development of a commercial product. Approaches to possibly reduce or eliminate these mycotoxins were considered, and cultural manipulation of carbon and nitrogen source/level , spore clean-up or washing and growth of MV in liquid culture without spore production were found successful. Of these techniques, the mycelial form of MV was found to be the most efficient for further studies .We have also previously shown that MV has produced other mutant sectors that had varying degrees of virulence when tested on kudzu . In those tests a white sector was found, but it exhibited no bioherbicidal efficacy on kudzu and was not tested on other weeds. In these present studies a white mutant was discovered and isolated, and shown to be virulent in several tests on hemp sesbania, sicklepod,kudzu and glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth. The fact that this virulent sector is stable, does not produce spores and exhibits bioherbicidal activity on major weeds indicatesit may be a useful stand-alone bioherbicide or as a tool for future comparative studies with MV.

Since this sector reproduces only through mycelial growth, it is assumed that that the production of trichothecenes is also mitigated. However, this will have to be monitored. Future studies can be envisioned, including more extensive host range tests with weeds , interactions with herbicides and tests for efficacy in the field. Since some proteins differed in MV-Sector BSH cells and in culture supernatants compared to those of MV, their identity and possible function in infection and virulence processes should be examined. Heat is a valuable entity that has served a variety of needs throughout human history, but only relatively recently has heat been used for weed control, where it may serve as an alternative to chemical herbicides. Much of the research involved with heat to control weeds has been via four general methods: controlled burning, flaming of weeds, hot water treatment and steam application. Heat injury can cause denaturation/aggregation of cellular proteins and protoplast expansion/rupture, resulting in plant tissue desiccation, potentially leading to death .Depending on the heat treatment exposure time, protein denaturation in plant tissues may be initiated at 45˚C . Temperatures of 55˚C – 95˚C can be lethal to plant leaf and stem tissues. Exposure to a flame for only 0.065 – 0.130s was sufficient to kill leaf tissue and higher temperatures were more effective.For example, cellular structural changes were more pronounced when the cellular temperature changed more rapidly compared to gradual and lower temperature changes .